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| Hôtel de Soubise, circa 1740 |
The vigor
of the Baroque and its departure from the purer Classicism of the
Renaissance quickly led to controversy among humanists and
architectural theorists. In France this culminated at the close of
the 17th century in the “Querelle des Anciens et des
Modernes” or “Quarrel of the Ancients and the Moderns”. At
question was whether “modern” society had reached a state of
enlightenment surpassing that of the Greeks and Romans (and by
implication the Church also). If this was indeed the case, perhaps there was
justification for liberation from the authority of the ancient
philosophies and institutions as well.
During
the same period France and England were engaged in an economic,
military,and cultural struggle to decide which nation would become
the singular,dominant influential force of a reinvigorated and
empowered Western civilization. Among the most significant
battlegrounds for establishing each one's cultural authority was
development of a national architecture. France would side with the
“Moderns” and proceed to develop a powerful secular artistic
style that was decidedly their own.
The
Baroque may have reached its greatest expression in Germany as an
architectural manifestation of the Counter Reformation. However,
Louis XIV, the “Sun King”, was determined to capture the
emotional power of the Baroque for the glory of the French monarchy.
This he did to grand effect in the expansion of the Palais du Louvre
and the Château de Versailles. As with church architecture, secular
French Baroque floors were plain, walls informed by classical design
being relatively unadorned at eye level whereas exuberant grandeur
was reserved for the ceilings above.
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| Galerie des Glaces, Château de Versailles, circa 1684 |
His
great grandson and successor, Louis XV would continue to expand and
embellish Versailles and under his regime a residential style was
formalized that became the envy of Europeon nobility. Rococo was a
significant reinterpretation of the Baroque that would forever change
interior design. The intimacy, delicacy and lightness of French
Rococo supplanted the exuberance and majesty of the former Baroque.
In so doing it created more comfortable, livable spaces. Columns and
pilasters were replaced by panelized walls, rich entablatures by soft
coves, applied surface ornament in low relief displaced modeled
sculpture in high relief. Advances in plaster compositions allowed
ornamental appliqués to be applied directly to furniture, doors,
panels and wall surfaces alike.
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| Cabinet de la Pendule, Château de Versailles, circa 1740 |
There
was a conspicuous materialism associated with French Rococo. Quite
often the floors were a simple wood parquet, an archetype of the
physical earth. Likewise the ceilings, save for a central rosette,
were largely unadorned often painted a soft blue in imitation of the
literal sky in direct contrast to the Baroque depiction of an
idealized spiritual heaven represented with allegorical frescoes and
sculpture in high relief . Panelized walls of Rococo featured
ornament at eye level, at a human scale of natural asymmetrical forms
of flora and fauna as well as the signature “rocaille” shell-like
centerpieces evoking turmoil, variety, surprise and movement.
English Neoclassical
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| Arbury Hall, Warwickshire |
The
Rococo was never warmly embraced in England and where the “French
style” existed it was generally a more subdued version. The English
initially turned to the Gothic for inspiration igniting a revival
that frequently utilized plaster in a decorative manner where stone
had been originally used structurally. The return to the Gothic has
been attributed to the more conservative character of the English;
however, one might imagine political animosity also played a role in
the rejection of French influences.
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| Syon House, circa 1762 |
Inspired
from a visit to the Veneto in 1714, Architect William Kent would lead
the charge of bringing England back to its architectural senses,
turning to Palladio for inspiration. For the first time since the
beginning of the Renaissance the English would be establishing their
own decorative style that others, including the French, would soon
emulate. In complete contrast to Rococo, the embrace of Palladio's
interpretation of the Classical resulted in a comparatively
restrained and ordered aesthetic.
A
few years later a Scottish stone mason turned architect by the name
of William Adam would also embrace the incoming Palladian influence.
In the mid-18th century his sons James and Robert Adam
would take a four year tour to Rome to study the recently uncovered
ruins of Pompeii and Herculaneum and other notable classical and
early Renaissance sites. The Adams brothers were astute businessmen,
patenting their signature “Adams style” designs perfectly suited
for reproduction in plaster. Variations of Neoclassical design would
dominate English style and that of her former colonies until the
early 20th century.
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| Osterly Park, circa 1767 |
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| Drayton Hall, circa 1742 |
The
influence of English Neoclassicism was immediately felt in colonial
America, a precursor to a federal style. Although the virgin forests
of the continent meant a steady supply of wood for years to come,
interior plaster, especially ornamental plaster would see widespread
use in fine homes and government buildings. With its Anglican
lineage plaster thus became an inherited contribution to an emerging
American architectural and cultural patrimony. In many respects the
United States has now takes the cultural lead in the Western world.
Our next article in the series will explore a brief history of
plaster in the United States and the current state of the art.
Contributed by Patrick Webb
Contributed by Patrick Webb
